CIVICS
Chapter 1 POWER SHARING
1. Describe the ethnic
composition of the people in Belgium.
i. The ethnic composition of Belgium is very complex. Of the
country’s total population, 59 per cent
lives in the Flemish region and speaks Dutch language.
ii. Another 40 per cent people live in the Wallonia region and speak
French.
iii. Remaining 1 per cent of the Belgians speak German.
iv. In the capital city Brussels, 80 per cent people speak French
while 20 per cent are Dutch-speaking.
v. The minority French-speaking community was relatively rich and
powerful. This as resented by the Dutch-speaking community who got the benefit
of economic development and education much later. This led to tension between
the Dutch speaking and French-speaking communities during the 1950s
and 1960s
2) State the basic reason
for the tension between the French speaking and DuDutch speaking communities
in Belgium. (Answer is point v above)
3. Describe the ethnic
diversity of the people in Sri Lanka.
i. The major social groups in Sri Lanka are the Sinhala-speakers (74
per cent) and the Tamil-speakers (18 per cent). Among Tamils, there are two
subgroups. Tamil natives of the country are called ‘Sri Lankan Tamils’ (13 per
cent). The rest, who’s fore fathers came from India as plantation workers
during colonial period, are called ‘Indian Tamils’.
ii. Most of the Sinhala-speaking people are Buddhist, while most of
the Tamils are Hindus or Muslims. There are about 7 per cent Christians, who
are both Tamil and Sinhala.
3. State the basic reasons
for the tension (Civil War) between Sinhala and Tamil speaking people in Sri
Lanka. Or why do the Sri Lankan Tamils feel alienated in their country?
i. In Sri Lanka, the Sinhala community enjoyed a bigger majority and
could impose its will on the entire country. The leaders of the Sinhala
community sought to secure dominance over government by virtue of their
majority. As a result, the democratically elected government adopted a series
of majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
ii. There was a feeling of alienation among the Sri Lankan Tamils.
They felt that none of the major political parties led by the Buddhist Sinhala
leaders was sensitive to their language and culture. They felt that the
Constitution and government policies denied them equal political rights,
discriminated against them in getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored
their interests.
iii. The Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for- the
recognition of Tamil as an official language,- for regional autonomy and-
equality of opportunity in securing education and jobs. But their demand for
more autonomy to provinces populated by the Tamils was repeatedly denied.
iv. By 1980s, several political organizations were formed demanding
an independent Tamil Eelam (state) in northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
The distrust between the two communities turned into widespread conflict. It
soon turned into a civil war.
4. What were the
majoritarian measures adopted by the Sri Lankan Government?
i. In 1956, an Act was passed to recognize Sinhala as the only
official language, disregarding Tamil.
ii. The governments followed preferential policies that favoured
Sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.
iii. A new
constitution stipulated that the state should protect and foster Buddhism. All
these government measures, coming one after the other, gradually increased the
feeling of alienation among the Sri
Lankan Tamils.
5. How did the Belgian
Government resolve the ethnic diversities and tension between them? Or How was
power shared between the people in Belgium?
i. The Belgian Government recognized the existence of regional
differences and cultural diversities.
ii. Between 1970 and 1993 they amended their constitution four times
to work out an arrangement that would enable everyone to live together within
the same country. The arrangement they worked out is different from any other
country and is very innovative.
iii. Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and
French-speaking ministers shall be equal in the central government. Some
special laws require the support of majority of members from each linguistic
group. Thus, no single community can make decisions unilaterally.
iv. Many powers of the central government have been given to state
governments of the two regions of the country. The state governments are not
subordinate to the Central Government.
v. Brussels has a separate government in which both the communities
have equal representation. The French-speaking people accepted equal
representation in Brussels because the Dutch-speaking community has accepted
equal representation in the Central Government.
vi. Apart from the Central and the State Government, there is a third
kind of government. This ‘community government’ is elected by people belonging
to one language community – Dutch, French and German-speaking – no matter where
they live. This government has the power regarding cultural, educational and
language-related issues.
vii. They helped to avoid- civic strife between the two major
communities and- a possible
division of the country on
linguistic lines.
6. State two sets of
reasons in favour of power sharing. Or What are the
prudential and moral
reasons for power sharing?
i. Prudential Reasons: Power sharing is good because it helps to
reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups. Since social conflict
often leads to violence and political instability, power sharing is a good way
to ensure the stability of political order.
ii. Moral Reasons: Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. A
democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise, and
who have to live with its effects. People have a right to be consulted on how
they are to be governed. A legitimate government is one where citizens, through
participation, acquire a chance in the system.
7. Describe the horizontal
distribution of power. What are its advantages?
i. Power is shared among different organs of government, such as the
legislature, executive
and judiciary. We call this
horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of
government placed at the same level to exercise different powers.
ii. Such a separation ensures that none of the organs can exercise
unlimited power. Each organ checks the others. This results in a balance of
power among various institutions.
iii. Similarly, although judges are appointed by the executive, they
can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the legislatures. This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances.
8. Describe the vertical
division of power. Or What is meant by federal division of power?
i. Power can be shared among governments at different levels – a
general government for the entire country and governments at the provincial or
regional level. Such a general government for the entire country is usually
called federal government. In India, we refer to it as the Central or Union
Government.
ii. The governments at the provincial or regional level are called by
different names in different countries. In India, we call them State
Governments. This is called federal division of power.
iii. The same principle can be extended to levels of government lower
than the State government, such as the municipality and Panchayat. Division of
powers involving higher and lower levels of government is called vertical
division of power.
9. Describe the power
sharing among different social groups.
i. Power may be shared among different social groups, such as the
religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good
example of this arrangement.
ii. In some countries, there are constitutional and legal
arrangements whereby socially weaker sections and women are represented in the
legislatures and administration.
10. Describe the power
sharing among political parties, pressure groups and movements.
i. Power sharing arrangements can also be seen in the way political
parties, pressure groups and movements control or influence those in power. In
contemporary democracies, political competition ensures that power does not
remain in one hand.
ii. In the long run, power is shared among different political
parties that represent different ideologies and social groups. Sometimes this
kind of sharing can be direct, when two or more parties form an alliance to contest
elections. If their alliance is elected, they form a coalition government
and thus share power.
iii. In a democracy, we find interest groups such as those of traders,
businessmen, industrialists, farmers and industrial workers. They also will
have a share in governmental power, either through participation in
governmental committees or bringing influence on the decision making process
11. Describe the different
forms of power sharing in democracies. Give examples.
(Write the 1st point of answers 7, 8, 9 and 10)
Chapter
2 FEDERALISM
1. What is federalism?
i. Federalism is a system of government in which the power is
divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the
country.
ii. Usually, a federation has two levels of government. One is the
government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few
subjects of common national interest. The others are governments at the
level of provinces or states that look after much of the day to day
administering of their state.
iii. Both
these levels of governments enjoy their power independent of the other.
2. What are the
objectives of federalism? What are the two aspects that are crucial in the
practice of federalism?
i. To safeguard and promote unity of the country, while at the
same time accommodate regional diversity, are the objectives of federalism.
ii. The two aspects that are crucial in the practice of federalism
are:
(a) Governments at
different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing.
(b) They should also
trust that each would abide by its part of the agreement. An ideal federal
system has both aspects : mutual trust and agreement to live together.
3. What are the two kinds
of routes through which federations have been formed?
Or
What are the two types of
federations?
Or
What are ‘holding
together and coming together federations?
i. Coming
together’ federations: The first route involves
independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that
by pooling sovereignty and retaining identity they can increase their security.
This type of ‘coming together’ federations include the USA, Switzerland and
Australia. In this first category of federations, all the constituent States
usually have equal power and are strong in comparison with the federal
government.
ii. Holding
together’ federations: The second route is
where a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent
states and the national government. India, Spain and Belgium are examples of
this kind of ‘holding together’ federations. In this second category, the
central government tends to be more powerful in comparison with the States.
Very often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers.
Some units are granted special powers.
4. Distinguish between
federal and unitary governments.
i. Under the unitary system, either there is only one level of
government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government. The
central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local
government.
ii. But in a federal system, the central government cannot order
the state government to do something. State government has powers of its own
for which it is not answerable to the central government. Both these
governments are separately answerable to the people.
5. What are the key
features of federalism?
i. There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.
ii. Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but
each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
iii. The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of
government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of
each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
iv. The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be
unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the
consent of both the levels of government.
v. Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the
powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire
if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of
their respective powers.
vi. Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly
specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
6. What are the power
sharing arrangements in India? (Describe the three-fold distribution of
legislative powers between the Union Government and State Government.)
i. The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of
government, the Union Government (or what we call the Central Government) and
the State governments.
ii. Later, a third tier of federalism was added in the form of
Panchayats and Municipalities. As in any federation, these different tiers
enjoy separate jurisdiction. The Constitution clearly provided a threefold
distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the State
Governments. Thus, it contains three lists.
iii. Union List includes subjects of national importance such as defence of the
country, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency. They are
included in this list because we need a uniform policy on these matters
throughout the country. The Union Government alone can make laws relating to
the subjects mentioned in the Union List.
iv. State List contains subjects of State and local importance such as police,
trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation. The State Governments alone can
make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the State List.
v. Concurrent
List includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Government
as well as the State Governments, such as education, forest, trade unions,
marriage, adoption and succession. Both the Union as well as the State
Governments can make laws on the subjects mentioned in this list. If their laws
conflict with each other, the law made by the Union Government will prevail.
7. What are the residuary
powers of the Central Government?
According to our
constitution, the Union Government has the power to legislate on the subjects
that do not fall in any of the three lists. It is known as ‘residuary’
subjects. E.g. Laws related to Computer software.
8. Prove by giving examples
that in India we have holding together type of
federation. Or. State an
example to prove that in India equal power is not granted to its constituent
units.
i. Very often different constituent units of the federation have
unequal powers. Some units are granted special powers.
ii. All States in the Indian Union do not have identical powers.
Some States enjoy a special status. Jammu and Kashmir has its own Constitution.
Many provisions of the Indian Constitution are not applicable to this State
without the approval of the State Assembly.
iii. Indians who are not permanent residents of this State cannot buy
land or house here. Similar special provisions exist in some other States of
India as well.
9. What are Union
Territories?
There are some units of the
Indian Union, which enjoy very little power. These are areas which are too
small to become an independent State but which could not be merged with any of
the existing States. These areas, like Chandigarh, or Lakshadweep or the
capital city of Delhi, are called Union Territories.
These territories do not
have the powers of a State. The Central Government
has special powers in running these areas.
10. What is the third
category amendment procedure?
Any change to the Indian
Constitution has to be first passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at
least two-thirds majority. Then it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at
least half of the total States.
11. What role does
judiciary play in the implementation of the Constitutional provisions?
The judiciary plays an
important role in overseeing the implementation of Constitutional provisions
and procedures. In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts
and the Supreme Court make a decision.
12. How is federalism
practiced in India?
i. By
organizing Linguistic States: The creation of
Linguistic States was the first and a major test for democratic politics in our
country. This was done to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived
in the same State. Some States were created not on the basis of language but to
recognize differences based on culture, ethnicity or geography. It has actually
made the country, more united. It has also made administration easier.
ii. By
developing a language policy: A second test for Indian
federation is the language policy. Our Constitution did not give the status of
national language to any one language. Hindi was identified as the official
language. But Hindi is the mother tongue of only about 40 per cent of Indians.
Therefore, there were many safeguards to protect other languages. Besides
Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognized as Scheduled Languages by the
Constitution. States too have their own official languages.
iii. By re-structuring the Centre-State relations: Restructuring the Centre-State relations is one more way in
which federalism has been strengthened in practice. The constitutional arrangements
for sharing power work in reality depends to a large extent on how the ruling
parties and leaders follow these arrangements. Rise of a number of regional parties
and establishment of coalition governments led to a new culture of power sharing
and respect for the autonomy of the state governments.
13. Examine the language
policy adopted by the Government of India.
Our Constitution did not
give the status of national language to any one language. Hindi was identified
as the official language. But Hindi is the mother tongue of only about 40 per
cent of Indians. Therefore, there were many safeguards to protect other
languages. Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognized as Scheduled
Languages by the Constitution. States too have their own official languages.
According to our Constitution, the use of English as official language was to
stop in 1965 and to use Hindi in its place. However, it was extended on the
request of non-Hindi speaking states like Tamil Nadu.
14. What is meant by
Coalition Governments?
When no single party get
a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, two or more national parties or regional
parties join together to form a government at the Centre. This type of government
is known as Coalition Governments.
15. State any two changes
in the Central- State relationship after 1990 that strengthened power sharing
effectively.
i. Change in the attitude of the central Government: For a long
time, the same party ruled both at the centre and most of the states. It did
not allow states to become autonomous federal units. When the parties were
different, the Centre tried to undermine the powers of the state Governments
and even dismissed state Governments. This situation changed after 1990.
ii. Rise of a number of regional parties and establishment of
coalition governments at the centre: Forming of coalition Government at the
centre led to a new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of
state Governments. This trend was supported by the Supreme Court and Central
Government by a judgment and now it is difficult to dismiss state Governments.
16. What are scheduled
languages?
The Census in 1991, found
114 major Languages in India. Of these 22 languages are included in the Eighth
Schedule of the Indian Constitution and are therefore called ‘Scheduled
Languages’. Eg. Hindi, Bangla, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil etc
17. What is the rationale for the decentralization of power in
India? Or What is the basic idea
behind the decentralization of power?
i. India is a vast country with a huge population. It is not
possible to rule the country by a single Government.
ii. Even the States in India are bigger than many of the European
countries. They are internally very diverse. There is a need for power sharing
with in the state too. Large number of problems and issues are best solved at
the local level.
18. What are the
arguments in favour of local self Government in India?
i. Large number of problems and issues are best solved at the
local level. People have better knowledge of problems in their localities. They
also have better ideas on where to spend money and how to manage things more
efficiently.
ii. Besides, at the local level it is possible for the people to
directly participate in decision making. This helps to inculcate a habit of democratic
participation. Forming Local government is the best way to realize one
important principle of democracy, namely local self-government.
19. What were the
drawbacks of the local Government bodies formed earlier?
i. The local Government bodies like village panchayats,
municipalities and municipal corporations were under the direct control of
state Governments
ii. Elections to these local Governments were not held regularly.
iii. Local Self Governments did not have any powers or resources of
their own, thus there was no decentralization in reality.
20. What were the
Constitutional provisions as per the Amendment in 1992 for the setting up of
Panchayati Raj in India?
i. Now it is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections
to local government bodies.
ii. Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive
heads of these institutions for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
Other Backward Classes.
iii. At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
iv. An independent institution called the State Election
Commission has been created in each State to conduct Panchayat and municipal
elections.
v. The State governments are required to share some powers and
revenue with local government bodies. The nature of sharing varies from State
to State.
21. What is Grama Sabha?
What are its functions?
i. All the adult members of a village constitute the Gram Sabha.
ii. It has to meet at least twice or thrice a year to approve the
annual budget of the Grama Panchayat and to review the performance of the Gram
Panchayat
22. How is Panchayati Raj
constituted?
i. It is a three-tier system of administration. At the lower
level, it is the Village Panchayat. Each village, or a group of villages in
some States, has a Gram Panchayat. This is a council consisting of several ward
members, often called panch, and a president or sarpanch. They are directly
elected by all the adult population living in that ward or village.
ii. Bloch Samiti or Panchayat Samiti: A few gram panchayats are
grouped together to form what is usually called a Panchayat Samiti or block or
mandal. The members of this representative body are elected by all the
Panchayat members in that area.
iii. Zilla Parishad: All the Panchayat Samitis or Mandals in a
district together constitute the Zilla (district) Parishad. Most members of the
Zilla Parishad are elected. Members of the Lok Sabha and MLAs of that district
and some other officials of other district level bodies are also its members.
Zilla Parishad chairperson is the political head of the Zilla Parishad.
iv. Similarly, local government bodies exist for urban areas as
well. Municipalities are set up in towns. Big cities are constituted into
municipal corporations. Both municipalities and municipal corporations are
controlled by elected bodies consisting of people’s representatives. Municipal
chairperson is the political head of the municipality. In a Municipal
Corporation such an officer is called the mayor.
23. What are the
difficulties faced by local government bodies?
i. While elections are held regularly and enthusiastically, ‘Gram
Sabhas’ are not held regularly.
ii. Most state governments have not transferred significant powers
to the local governments. Nor have they given adequate resources. We are thus
still a long way from realizing the ideal of self-government.
24. Point out one feature
in the practice of federalism in India that is similar to and
one feature that is different from that of Belgium.
i. In both countries the units of federation are Central Government
and state governments. The central government has given some of its powers to
the state governments both in Belgium and India. ii. Unlike in India,
the state government in Belgium is not a subordinate to the central government.
25. State any two differences
between the local government before and after the Constitutional amendment in
1992.
i. The local Government bodies like village panchayats,
municipalities and municipal corporations were under the direct control of
state Governments before and these have become autonomous bodied after the
amendment.
ii. Elections to these local Governments were not held regularly
before but it has become mandatory after the amendment.
iii. Local Self Governments did not have any powers or resources of
their own, thus there was no decentralization in reality before. But after the
amendment the State governments are required to share some powers and revenue
with local government bodies
Answer the following
Questions
1 What is a system of
‘checks & balances’?
2 Examine the main
elements of Belgium model of power sharing
3 What is ‘ethnic
composition’? Give an a/c of the ethnic composition of Sri Lanka
Chapter 3 DEMOCRACY AND
DIVERSITY
1. What was the Civil
Rights Movement?
Civil Rights Movement in the USA (1954-1968) refers to a set of events and reform movements aimed at
abolishing legal racial discrimination against
African-Americans. Led by Martin Luther King Jr., this movement practiced
non-violent methods of civil disobedience against racially discriminatory laws
and practices.
2. Who are the African Americans?
African-American,
Afro-American, Black American, or Black are the terms used to refer mainly to
the descendants of Africans who were brought into America as slaves between the
17th century and early 19th century.
3. What was the Black
Power Movement?
The Black Power movement
emerged in 1966 and lasted till 1975, which was a more militant anti-racist
movement, advocating even violence if necessary to end racism in the US.
4. How do American athletes
show their anger towards racism in 1968 Olympics?
Tommie Smith and John
Carlos were African American athletes. They
had won the gold and bronze medals respectively in 200 meters race. They
received their medals, wearing black socks and no shoes to represent Black poverty.
The two men standing with clenched fists upraised and heads bowed, while the
American national anthem was played. With this gesture, they tried to draw
international attention to racial discrimination in the United States. The
black-gloved and raised clenched fists were meant to symbolize ‘Black Power’.
5. How does social
diversity take different forms in Belgium and Sri Lanka?
In the case of Belgium ,
people who live in different regions speak different languages. In Sri Lanka,
linguistic as well as religious differences exist.Thus, social diversity can take
different forms in different societies.
6. How do social
differences originate?
i. By birth: We all
experience social differences based on accident of birth in our everyday lives.
We belong to a community simply because we were born into it. People around us
are male or female, they are tall and short, have different kinds of
complexions, or have different physical abilities or disabilities. ii. By
Choice: Some of the differences are based on our choices. For example, some
people are atheists. They do not believe in God or any religion. Some people
choose to follow a religion other than the one in which they were born. Most of
us choose what to study, which occupation to take up and which games or
cultural activities to take part. All these lead to formation of social groups
that are based on our choices.
7) Prove by giving
examples that social differences are either based on accident of
birth or choice. (Write same answer given above)
8. What are the
overlapping and cross cutting differences?
i. Social division takes place when some social difference
overlaps with other differences. The difference between the Blacks and Whites
becomes a social division in the US because the Blacks tend to be poor,
homeless and are discriminated.
ii. In our country, Dalits tend to be poor and landless. They often face discrimination and
injustice. Situations of this kind produce social divisions, when one kind of
social difference becomes more important than the other and people start
feeling that they belong to different communities.
iii. If social differences cross cut one another, it is difficult to
pit one group of people against
the other. It means that, groups that share a common interest on one issue are likely
to be in different sides on a different issue.
iv. In Northern Ireland, class and religion overlap with each
other. If you are Catholic, you are also more likely to be poor, and you may
have suffered a history of discrimination.
v. In the Netherlands, class and religion tend to cut across each
other. Catholics and Protestants are about equally likely to be poor or rich.
The result is that Catholics and Protestants have had conflicts in Northern
Ireland, while they do not do so in the Netherlands.
vi. Overlapping social differences create possibilities of deep
social divisions and
tensions. Crosscutting
social differences are easier to accommodate.
Examine the over lapping
and cross cutting differences of the people in Netherlands
and Northern Ireland. (Answer
same above)
Q. When does a social
difference become a social division? (Write point i above for answer)
9. How do social
differences affect politics?
Democracy involves
competition among various political parties. Their competition tends to divide any
society. If they start competing in terms of some existing social divisions, it
can make social divisions into political divisions and lead to conflict, violence
or even disintegration of a country. (Continue points iii & iv below)
10. Politics and social
divisions must not be allowed to mix. Substantiate this statement. Or Examine
with examples the impact of politics based on social differences.
i. Democracy involves competition among various political parties.
Their competition tends to divide any society. If they start competing in terms
of some existing social divisions, it can make social divisions into political
divisions and lead to conflict, violence or even disintegration of a country.
ii. Hundreds of civilians, militants and security forces were
killed in the fight between Unionists and Nationalists and between the security
forces of the UK and the Nationalists. It was only in 1998, that the UK
government and the Nationalists reached a peace treaty after which the
nationalists suspended their armed struggle.
iii. Political competition along religious and ethnic lines led to
the disintegration of Yugoslavia into six independent countries.
iv. In a democracy it is only natural that political parties would
talk about social divisions, make different promises to different communities,
look after due representation of various communities and make policies to
redress the grievances of the disadvantaged Communities.
v. Social divisions affect voting in most countries. People from
one community tend to prefer some party to others. In many countries, there are
parties that focus only on one community.
11. What are the three
determinants (factors) deciding the out come of politics of social divisions?
i. First of all the outcome depends on how people perceive their identities. If people see their identities in singular and exclusive terms,
it becomes very difficult to accommodate. As long as people in Northern Ireland
saw themselves as only Catholic or Protestant, their differences were difficult
to reconcile. Most people in our country see their identity themselves as
Indian as well as belonging to a state or a language group or a social or
religious community.
ii. Second, it depends on how political leaders raise the demands of any community. It is easier to accommodate demands that are within the
constitutional framework and are not at the cost of another community. The
demand for ‘only Sinhala’ was at the cost of the interest and identity of the
Tamil community in Sri Lanka. In Yugoslavia, the leaders of different ethnic
communities presented their demands in such a way that these could not be
accommodated within a single country.
iii. Third, it depends on the how the
government reacts to demands of different groups. If
the rulers of Belgium and Sri Lanka are willing to share the power and
accommodate the reasonable demands of minority community, social divisions
become less threatening for the country. But if they try to suppress such a
demand in the name of national unity, the end result is often quite the
opposite. Such attempts at forced integration often sow the seeds of
disintegration.
12. How does social
diversity strengthen democracy?
i. In a democracy, political expression of social divisions is
very normal and can be healthy. This allows various disadvantaged and marginal
social groups to express their grievances and get the government to attend to
these.
ii. Expression of various kinds of social divisions in politics
often results in their canceling one another out and thus reducing their
intensity. This leads to strengthening of a democracy.
iii. People who feel marginalized, deprived and discriminated have
to fight against the injustices. Such a fight often takes the democratic path,
voicing their demands in a peaceful and constitutional manner and seeking a
fair position through elections.
Chapter 4 GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE
1. What are the feminists
Movements?
These are agitations in
different countries for the extension of voting rights to women. These
agitations demanded enhancing the political and legal status of women and improving
their educational and career opportunities. Women’s movements are aimed at
equality in personal and family life as well. These movements are called Feminist movements.
2. Why do women lag much
behind men?
i. In India, we have a male dominated, patriarchal society.
Therefore, women’s opportunities are less.
ii. Women are discriminated in various aspects like, education,
health, and economic opportunities.
3. What is meant by
occupational mobility?
When a person changes his
occupation from one to another, it is occupational mobility. It was not allowed
when caste system was rigid.
4. What do you mean by
sexual division of labour?
All works of daily needs
are divided among men and women in the traditional society. According to which
all household work like cooking, washing, cleaning, looking after children etc
are given to women and outside work to earn a living is given to men. It is sexual
division of labour.
5. Mention different
aspects of life in which women are discriminated or disadvantaged in
India.(Give any four points) (imp)
i. Low literacy: The literacy rate among women is only 54 percent
compared with 76 per cent among men. Similarly, a smaller proportion of girl
students go for higher studies. When we look at school results, girls and boys
perform equally, if not better in some places. But they drop out because
parents prefer to spend their resources for their boys’ education rather than
spending equally on their sons and daughters.
ii. Low Position: The proportion of women among the highly paid and
valued jobs is still very small. On an average, an Indian woman works one hour
more than an average man every day. Yet much of her work is not paid and
therefore often not valued.
iii. Low Pay: The Equal Wages Act provides that equal wages should be
paid to equal work. However in almost all areas of work, from sports and
cinema, to factories and fields, women are paid less than men, even when both
do exactly the same work.
iv. Preference of a male child: In many parts of India, parents prefer
to have sons and find ways to have the girl child aborted before she is born.
Such sex-selective abortion led to a decline in child sex ratio (number of girl
children per thousand boys) in the country to merely 927.
v. Exploitation: There are reports of various kinds of harassment,
exploitation and violence against women. Urban areas have become particularly
unsafe for women. They are not safe even within their own home from beating,
harassment and other forms of domestic violence.
6. What is the status of
women’s representation in India’s legislative bodies?(imp)
i. In India, the proportion of women in legislature has been very
low. For example, the percentage of elected women members in Lok Sabha has
never reached even 10 per cent of its total strength.
ii. Their share in the state assemblies is less than 5 per cent. In
this respect, India is among the bottom group of nations in the world. India is
behind the averages for several developing countries of Africa and Latin America.
iii. In the government, cabinets are largely all-male
even when a woman becomes the Chief Minister or the Prime Minister.
7. What are Gandhiji’s
views on religion and politics?
Gandhiji used to say that
religion could never be separated from politics. What he meant by religion was
not any particular religion like Hinduism or Islam but moral values that inform
all religions. He believed that politics must be guided by ethics drawn from
religion.
8. State the different
forms of communal politics with one example each. Or How does
Communalism take various
forms in politics? (Give 4 points)
i. The most common expression of communalism is in everyday beliefs.
These routinely involve religious prejudices, stereotypes of religious
communities and belief in the superiority of one’s religion over other
religions. This is so common that we often fail to notice it, even when we
believe in it.
ii. A communal mind often leads to political dominance of one’s own
religious community. For those belonging to majority community, takes the form
of majoritarian dominance. For those belonging to the minority community, can
take the form of a desire to form a separate political unit.
iii. Political mobilization on religious lines is another frequent
form of communalism. This involves the use of sacred symbols, religious leaders
and emotional appeal, in order to bring the followers of one religion
together in the political arena. In electoral politics, this often involves
special appeal of votes in the name of religion.
iv. Sometimes communalism
takes its most ugly form of communal violence, riots
and massacre. India and Pakistan suffered some of the worst communal riots at
the time of the Partition. The post-independence period has also seen
large-scale communal
violence.
9. How do political leaders
make use of religion to win the election? Or How is politics mixed with
religion? ( for answer write the point iii given above)
10 What were the
differences between civil rights movement and black power movement?
( for answer refer to Answers of Question no 1 & 3)
10. Mention any two
constitutional provisions that make India a secular state.
(Or Why do we call India a
secular country?)
i. There is no official religion for the Indian state. Unlike the
status of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, that of Islam in Pakistan and that of
Christianity in England, our Constitution does not give a special status to any
religion.
ii. The Constitution provides to all individuals and communities
freedom to practice and propagate any religion.
iii. The Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.
iv. At the same time, the Constitution allows the state to intervene
in the matters of religion in order to ensure equality within religious
communities. For example, it bans Untouchability.
11. What are the causes for
undergoing changes in the caste system in modern India?
i. Partly due to the
efforts of social reformers and partly due to other socio-economic changes,
castes and caste system in modern India have undergone great changes.
ii. With economic development, large scale urbanization, growth of literacy and education, occupational
mobility and the weakening of the position of landlords in the villages,
the old notions of caste hierarchy is breaking
down. Now, most of the times, in urban areas
it does not matter much
who is walking along next to us on a street or eating at the next table in a
restaurant.
iii. The Constitution of India prohibited any caste-based
discrimination and laid the foundations of policies to reverse the injustices
of the caste system.
12. State how caste
inequalities are still continuing in India. (Examine some of the glimpses of
caste system in modern India.)
i. Even now, most people marry within their own caste or tribe.
ii. Untouchability has not ended completely, despite constitutional
prohibition. Effects of centuries of disadvantages continue to be felt today.
iii. The caste groups that
had access to education under the old system have done very well in
acquiring modern education as well. Those groups that did not have access to education
or were prohibited from acquiring it, have naturally lagged behind. That is why
there is a disproportionately large presence of ‘upper caste’ among the urban
middle classes in our country.
iv. Caste continues to be closely linked to economic status. Even
now, teachers prefer their children to be teachers – carpenters
prefer their children to be carpenters.
13. What are the various
forms that caste can take in politics?
i. When
parties choose candidates in elections, they keep in mind the caste composition
of the electorate and nominate candidates from different castes to muster
necessary support to win elections. When governments are formed, political
parties usually make sure that representatives of different castes and tribes
find a place in it.
ii. Political parties and candidates in elections make appeals to
caste sentiment to muster support. Some political parties are known to favour
some castes and are seen as their representatives.
iii. Universal adult franchise and the principle of one-person-one-vote
compelled political leaders to gear up to the task of mobilizing and securing
political support. It also brought new consciousness among the people of castes
that were hitherto treated as inferior and low. The focus on caste in politics
can sometimes give an impression that elections are all about caste and nothing
else.
14. State any two reasons
for economic inequality in India.
a. Failure in the implementation of land reform and unequal
distribution of land.
b. Rigid caste system and lack of occupational mobility are the
main reasons for
economic
inequality in India.
15. Why is caste an
important source of economic inequality in India?
i. Caste is an important source of economic inequality because it
regulates access to resources of various kinds. For example, in the past, the
so-called ‘untouchable’ castes were denied the right to own land, while only
the so-called ‘twice born’ castes or Brahmins had the right to education.
ii. Caste system prevents occupational mobility. People are not
allowed to take up any profession other than their family profession even
though they are talented in other fields because of the rigidity of the caste
system.
16. State two reasons to say that caste alone cannot determine election
results in India. Or Prove by giving examples that it is not the caste, but
other factors matter in electoral politics.
i. No parliamentary constituency in the country has a clear majority
of one single caste. So, every candidate and party needs to win the confidence
of more than one caste and
community to win elections.
ii. No party wins the votes of all the voters of a caste or
community. When people say that a caste is a ‘vote bank’ of one party, it
usually means that a large proportion of the voters from that caste vote for
that party.
iii. Many political parties may put up candidates from the same caste
(if that caste is believed to dominate the electorate in a particular
constituency). Some voters have more than one candidate from their caste while
many voters have no candidate from their caste.
iv. The ruling party and the sitting MP or MLA frequently lose
elections in our country. That could not have happened if all castes and
communities were frozen in their political preferences.
v. The voters have strong attachment to political parties, which is
often stronger than their attachment to their caste or community.
vi. People within the same caste or community have different
interests depending on their economic condition. Rich and poor or men and women
from the same caste often vote very differently.
vii. People’s assessment of the performance of the government and the
popularity rating of the leaders matter and are often decisive in elections.
(You can write any two points)
17. Prove by giving examples
that it is not politics that gets caste ridden, but it is the caste that gets
politicized.
i. Each caste group tries to become bigger by incorporating within
it neighbouring castes or sub-castes, which were earlier excluded from it.
ii. Various caste groups are required to enter into a coalition with
other castes or communities and thus enter into a dialogue and negotiation.
iii. New kinds of caste groups have come up in the political arena
like ‘backward’ and ‘forward’ caste groups.
18. What role does caste
play in democracy?
i. In some situations, expression of caste differences in politics
gives many disadvantaged communities the space to demand their share of power.
In this sense-caste politics has helped people from Dalits and OBC castes to gain better access to decision making.
ii. Several political and
non-political organizations have been demanding and agitating for an end to
discrimination against particular castes, for more dignity and more access to land,
resources and opportunities.
iii. At the same time exclusive attention to caste can produce
negative results as well. As in the case of religion, politics based on caste
identity alone is not very healthy in a democracy. It can divert attention from
other important issues like poverty, development and corruption. In some cases,
caste division leads to tensions, conflict and even violence.
Additional questions:
(students are expected to write the answers by themselves)
1. What are Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes? Page No 50
2. Describe the composition
of religious diversity in India. Page No 50
3. What is Sachar
Committee? ( This committee published its report recently)
4. Prove by giving examples
that castes continue to be very strongly linked to economic
status in many
ways. Page 52
5. How can we use religion
in politics in a positive way?
6. What do you mean by
feminism?
7. Why do girls drop out
more from schools?
8. What do you mean by
communal politics?
9. What are the
disadvantages in using castes in politics?
